Christophe Ippolito
Professor of French
- School of Modern Languages
Overview
Dr. Christophe Ippolito (Chris) is a Professor in the School of Modern Languages at Georgia Tech’s Ivan Allen College of Liberal Arts, an advisor for the College’s interdisciplinary African Studies Minor, a member of the Centre Flaubert’s team at the University of Rouen Normandie, and a secretary to Georgia Tech's AAUP Chapter.
He specializes in modern and contemporary France and African studies, and has published more than five dozen peer-reviewed articles and book chapters, as well as ten books including three monographs on Flaubert, modern French culture, and contemporary Francophone studies (with focus on Africa and the Middle East). His next book, a co-authored critical edition of three Flaubert’s travel narratives (he edited the one on Brittany), is forthcoming in 2024 from French academic publisher Honoré Champion, for their bicentennial edition of Flaubert’s complete works. Selected as a Georgia Power Professor of Excellence representing the Ivan Allen College of Liberal Arts in 2016, he is currently working on a monograph on literature and politics.
A former Language Advisor/Program Director for French (January 2015 - June 2018), French club co-founder and adviser (2008-2015), recipient of a Georgia Tech Class of 1934 Course Survey Teaching Effectiveness Award (2012), co-organizer with his Modern Languages colleagues in French of the 2013 20th- & 21st-Century French and Francophone Studies international colloquium, and co-principal investigator of a Fulbright-Hays Group Projects Abroad / Dept. of Education grant for a 2014 program in Senegal he co-founded in 2012, he is helping develop Modern Languages’ “LBAT” study abroad programs in Africa and France. He also teaches language and advanced courses at Georgia Tech-Europe in Metz, and initiated there back in Spring 2019 a study abroad program on sustainable development in France—a “serve learn sustain” (SLS) program in which students volunteer in local community organizations. In 2021, he served as distinguished visiting professor at the University of Shanghai for a semester.
As advisor, coordinator and proposal’s lead writer for the College’s interdisciplinary African Studies Minor (15 credits) that started in fall 2021 with courses in Economics, International Affairs, Literature, Media and Communication, Public Policy, and Modern Languages (languages and area studies), he is happy to welcome queries from students and scholars from all backgrounds and accommodate selected requests for lectures, workshops and consulting. The minor's focus is on Africa today, with one (1) mandatory course (Introduction to Africa, in English), and four (4) electives, with at least two given in an African language at the introductory, intermediate or advanced level: Arabic, French, Portuguese, Swahili, or Wolof (the language of Senegal, where we have a study abroad program also open to non-Georgia Tech students). Along with colleagues in Engineering and Design, Ippolito also co-leads a Spring Break study abroad program in Rwanda. The minor is designed for undergraduates who will enter a wide range of careers that can lead directly or indirectly to interactions with the people, the social organizations and businesses, and governments of Africa, both abroad and in the U.S. For further information please email the minor’s advisor, Chris Ippolito (cippolito6@gatech.edu).
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Recently Published Books (reviewed in French Studies):
Christophe Ippolito, Vers des identités culturelles postfrancophones, Caen, Passage(s), coll. « Essais », 2019.
Christophe Ippolito (ed.), La Littérature et la vie, Paris, Classiques Garnier, coll. « Rencontres », n° 351, série « Littérature des xxe et xxie siècles », n° 32, 2018; includes a freely available presentation.
Christophe Ippolito (ed.), Récit de vie, récit de soi, Caen, Passage(s), coll. « Essais », 2018.
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Selected Open Access Publications:
“La Vie et demie de Sony Labou Tansi: Politique de la prison, postcolonie pénitentiaire et humanisme critique,” Nouvelles Études Francophones vol. 37, n° 2, 2022, p. 159-171.
“L’agriculture hors de son champ : débordements du chapitre II dans Bouvard et Pécuchet.” Revue Flaubert, n° 18, 2019. Bouvard et Pécuchet et l'agriculture. Numéro dirigé par Stéphanie Dord-Crouslé et Éric Le Calvez.
“La Fabrique du discours politique sur 1848 dans L’Éducation sentimentale.” Op. Cit. - Revue des Littératures et des Arts, vol. 17, 2017. Numéro consacré à la préparation de l’Agrégation de lettres modernes.
“Résistance culturelle aux Comores : Soeuf Elbadawi et le blog de Muzdalifa House.” Les Littératures francophones de l’archipel des Comores et du sud-ouest de l’océan Indien. Eds. Buata B. Malela, Linda Rasoamanana, and Rémi A. Tchokothe. Paris: Classiques Garnier, 2017. 211-25. (HAL version.)
“Trois contes, Trois femmes puissantes : le puzzle et l’oiseau migrateur.” Une femme puissante – L’œuvre de Marie NDiaye. Ed. Daniel Bengsch and Cornelia Ruhe. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2013. 305–18.
“Apories culturelles et mémoire de la diaspora : migration et écriture chez Régine Robin.” Migrations, exils, errances, écritures. Ed. Corinne Alexandre-Garner and Isabelle Keller-Privat. Paris: Presses Universitaires de Paris Ouest, 2012. 157-69.
“La conclusion d’Indiana.” Revue d’Histoire Littéraire de la France 109 (2009) 555–72.
Lebanon: Poems of Love and War / Liban: Poèmes d’amour et de guerre, by Nadia Tuéni. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press; Beirut: Dar An-Nahar, 2006. Edited and introduced (xi-xxxv) by Christophe Ippolito.
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Courses Taught (FREN 4000-level courses can be taught as electives in our M.S. programs in Global Media and Cultures, and Applied Language and Intercultural Studies (MS-GMC, MS-ALIS), with standard modifications):
In Atlanta:
FREN 3120 Conversation, 4246 French and Francophone Film and Media
FREN 3014 Introduction to Contemporary France, 3011/3012 France Today I & II, 4080 Politics and Public Policy, 3017 Paris: Modernity Today
FREN 4011 French Art, 3001/3002 French Literature (1800-1900, 1900-Present), 4200 French Philosophy
ARBC/FREN//PORT/SWA/WOLO 3420 / ML 2500 Introduction to Africa (in English), 4103 Francophone Africa, 4105 Francophone Cinema, 4064 Sustainable Development in the Francophone World
At Georgia Tech-Lorraine, Metz, France:
FREN 1001/1002 Elementary French I & II, FREN 2001 French Culture I, FREN 2813/3813 French Practicum [French for work in community organizations and everyday life in France], FREN 3500 Field Work Abroad (community-based), FREN 3501 Sustainable Communities in France (classroom-based)
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- PhD French, Columbia University
- Certified as an ACTFL Tester of French with full certification, 2002
Interests
- Economic Development and Smart Cities
- French
- Literary and Cultural Studies
- Media Studies
- Studies Abroad
Focuses:
- Africa (North)
- Africa (Sub-Saharan)
- Europe
- Middle East
- United States - Georgia
- International Development
- African Studies
- Cinema Studies
- Community engagement
- Education
- Francophone Studies
- Intercultural Issues
- Literature
- Post-Colonialism
- Sustainability
Courses
- ARBC-3420: Introduction to Africa
- FREN-1001: Elementary French I
- FREN-1002: Elementary French II
- FREN-2001: French Culture I
- FREN-2002: French Culture II
- FREN-2813: Special Topics
- FREN-3001: French Lit 1800-1900
- FREN-3004: Drama Workshop
- FREN-3008: Survey of French Lit II
- FREN-3011: France Today I
- FREN-3012: France Today II
- FREN-3014: Intro To Contemp France
- FREN-3017: Paris: Modernity Today
- FREN-3040: Reading and Translation
- FREN-3061: Adv Business French I
- FREN-3062: Adv Business French II
- FREN-3420: Introduction to Africa
- FREN-3500: Field Work Abroad
- FREN-3501: Sustainable Communities
- FREN-3551: Fren for Professions I
- FREN-3552: Fren for Professions II
- FREN-4011: French Art
- FREN-4080: Politics & PubPol France
- FREN-4103: Francophone Africa
- FREN-4105: Francophone Cinema
- FREN-4246: Fren./Franc. Films/Media
- FREN-4500: Intercultural Seminar
- FREN-4695: French Internship
- FREN-6011: French Art
- FREN-6103: Francophone Africa
- FREN-6105: Francophone Cinema
- FREN-6500: Intercultural Seminar
- FREN-6510: Language Practicum
- ML-2500: Intro Cross-Cult Studies
- PORT-3420: Introduction to Africa
- SWAH-3420: Introduction to Africa
- WOLO-3420: Introduction to Africa
Publications
Selected Publications
Books
- Narrative Memory in Flaubert’s Works
In: Peter Lang, "Currents in Comparative Romance Languages and Literatures" (Reviewed in French Studies; Romanistisches Jahrbuch...)
Date: 2001
- Poéticité de la description au dix-neuvième siècle
In: The Edwin Mellen Press
Date: 2012
- Vers des identités culturelles postfrancophones?
In: Passage(s), "Essais."
Date: 2019
Book - Editors
- Lebanon: Poems of Love and War / Liban: Poèmes d’amour et de guerre, by Nadia Tuéni
In: Syracuse UP, "Middle East literature in translation," & Dar An Nahar (Reviewed in Banipal; Arab Studies Quarterly...)
Date: 2006
- Résistances à la modernité dans la littérature française de 1800 à nos jours
In: L’Harmattan
Date: 2010
- La Littérature et la vie
In: Classiques Garnier, "Rencontres." (Reviewed in French Studies (2019) by M.-C. Killeen: https://doi.org/10.1093/fs/knz144)
Date: 2018
- Récit de vie, récit de soi
In: Passage(s), "Essais." (Reviewed in French Studies (2019) by S. Wilson: https://doi.org/10.1093/fs/knz212)
Date: 2018
Journal - Editors
- Trace(s), Fragment(s), Reste(s) (co-edited with Christophe Ippolito)
In: SITES Contemporary French and Francophone Studies
Date: 2014
- Récit de soi et société.
In: Lublin Studies in Modern Languages and Literature 40:2 [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2016
All Publications
Books
- Vers des identités culturelles postfrancophones?
In: Passage(s), "Essais."
Date: 2019
- Poéticité de la description au dix-neuvième siècle
In: The Edwin Mellen Press
Date: 2012
- Narrative Memory in Flaubert’s Works
In: Peter Lang, "Currents in Comparative Romance Languages and Literatures" (Reviewed in French Studies; Romanistisches Jahrbuch...)
Date: 2001
Book - Editors
- La Littérature et la vie
In: Classiques Garnier, "Rencontres." (Reviewed in French Studies (2019) by M.-C. Killeen: https://doi.org/10.1093/fs/knz144)
Date: 2018
- Récit de vie, récit de soi
In: Passage(s), "Essais." (Reviewed in French Studies (2019) by S. Wilson: https://doi.org/10.1093/fs/knz212)
Date: 2018
- Résistances à la modernité dans la littérature française de 1800 à nos jours
In: L’Harmattan
Date: 2010
- Lebanon: Poems of Love and War / Liban: Poèmes d’amour et de guerre, by Nadia Tuéni
In: Syracuse UP, "Middle East literature in translation," & Dar An Nahar (Reviewed in Banipal; Arab Studies Quarterly...)
Date: 2006
Journal Articles
- La couleur rouge et sa valeur pathétique dans l’expressionnisme abstrait et le surréalisme tardif
In: Lublin Studies in Modern Languages and Literature, vol. 44, n° 2, 2020, pp. 123-31 [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2020
- “La Parole 68”
In: Contemporary French and Francophone Studies, vol. 23, no. 2, 2019, pp. 137-144. [Peer Reviewed]
Date: December 2019
- “L’agriculture hors de son champ : débordements du chapitre II dans Bouvard et Pécuchet.” [https://flaubert.univ-rouen.fr/revue/article.php?id=293] [Peer Reviewed]
In: Revue Flaubert, n° 18, 2019 | Bouvard et Pécuchet et l'agriculture. Issue directed by Stéphanie Dord-Crouslé and Éric Le Calvez
Date: 2019
- Littérature comparée politique et politique de la littérature comparée en Amérique du Nord et en Europe [Peer Reviewed]
In: Comparaisons – La revue des cultures et des médiums, no. 2, 2018: Les Nouvelles Voies du comparatisme européen. 6 pp [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2018
- Fabrique du discours politique sur 1848 dans L’Éducation sentimentale
In: Op. Cit. - Revue des Littératures et des Arts, vol. 17, 2017. [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2017
- Dans le coin du miroir: cinq propositions sur le récit de soi, la *Francophonie et les minorités
In: Lublin Studies in Modern Languages and Literature, vol. 40, no. 2, 2016 [appeared in Jan. 2017]), pp. 2-15. [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2016
- Introduction (with Stéphanie Boulard, Roger Célestin, Eliane DalMolin)
In: Trace(s), Fragment(s), Reste(s), Contemporary French and Francophone Studies, vol. 18, no. 3, 2014, pp. 219-24 [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2014
- Le Liban : un modèle pour l’édition francophone en Afrique
Date: 2014
- Discours mythiques et écocritiques en dialogue : l’exemple d’Alexandrie d'Egypte
Date: 2012
- Microprogrammes éducatifs américains en contexte bilingue et enseignement du français : le cas du Cameroun
Date: 2012
- Le développement en Afrique : quelques perspectives dans le contexte universitaire américain
Date: 2011
- Mises en scène d’un continent de Roussel à Leiris : d’une Afrique l’autre
Date: 2010
- Student Presentations in the Business French Classroom: Content, Techniques, and Assessment
Date: 2010
- Intercultural Politics: Translating Post-Colonial Lebanese Literature in the United States
Date: 2009
- La collection "Patrimoine" de Dar An-Nahar : Une bibliothèque de la Pléiade libano-francophone
Date: 2009
- La conclusion d’Indiana
Date: 2009
- Police du descriptif
Date: 2009
- “Le chant du signifié“ : sur une lecture de Jean Cohen par Michel Houellebecq
Date: 2009
- Engendering Poetic Memory: Nadia Tuéni’s Sentimental Archives of a War in Lebanon
Date: 2008
- “Faire Verdurin" : Formes et extériorité dans Tropismes et Les Fruits d’or
Date: 2008
- Intermediate French Online: Pedagogical Uses of Multiple Interfaces
Date: 2007
- Parler ou dire le moderne : Flaubert et la littérature populaire dans L’Éducation sentimentale et son manuscrit
Date: 2005
- Conversion et décadence dans l’écriture de Claudel
Date: 2004
- Discours francophones et enjeux critiques dans le champ libanais
Date: 2004
- Extérieur nuit : sentimentisme et noctambulismes dans le Paris de Jean de Tinan
Date: 2004
- Écrire, régner, (se) faire admirer : dérives exhibitionnistes au Grand Siècle ?
Date: 2003
- From the Shtetl to Montreal: Cultural Migrations, Deterritorialization and the Hyperreal Condition in Régine Robin’s La Québécoite
Date: 2003
- L’Échange : une éthique de la dramaturgie
Date: 2003
- Critique du positivisme et fictions d’un gai savoir dans Bouvard et Pécuchet
Date: 2002
- Subtexts in Flaubert: The Underlying Currents of Meaning
Date: 2001
- Flaubert’s Chateaubriand: Plagiarism or Palimpsest?
Date: 2000
- Flaubert’s Pearl Necklace: Weaving a Garland of Images in the Reader’s Memory
Date: 2000
- Histoires d’engendrements et engendrement d’Histoire
Date: 2000
- Paris, 1890 : la décadence au miroir alexandrin
Date: 2000
- Flaubert’s Literary Shop in Times of "Industrial" Art
Date: 1999
- La Vérité toute nue sort du puits : communication et sexualité dans La Fortune des Rougon
Date: 1997
- Système du bonnet flaubertien
Date: 1997
- Eurydice Lost: African Identity and Cruelty in Werewere Liking’s Orphée-Dafric
Date: 1996
- Autorité du témoignage et manipulation de l’auteur : le cas d’Aurélia de Nerval
Date: 1995
- “Faire Verdurin“, “être Guermantes”
Date: 1994
Journal - Editors
- Récit de soi et société.
In: Lublin Studies in Modern Languages and Literature 40:2 [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2016
- Trace(s), Fragment(s), Reste(s) (co-edited with Christophe Ippolito)
In: SITES Contemporary French and Francophone Studies
Date: 2014
Chapters
- Eurydice en Bécassine dans Par les champs et par les grèves
In: Flaubert voyageur. Ed. Éric Le Calvez. Paris: Classiques Garnier, 2019. 119-35 [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2019
- La Québécoite: faillite des paradigmes identitaires et intégrationnistes, cosmopolitisme du futur
In: Littérature et cosmopolitisme. Eds. Guillaume Bridet and alii. Dijon: Éditions universitaires de Dijon, 2019. 157-167 [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2019
- Le nationalisme par lui-même: sur une anthologie du nationalisme et de ses styles
In: Du style des idées : nationalisme et littérature. Ed. Stéphanie Bertrand et Sylvie Freyermuth. Peter Lang, 2019 [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2019
- Du récit de vie au récit de soi. Test et trauma
In: Récit de vie, récit de soi. Ed. C. Ippolito. Caen: Passage(s), 2018. 9-26. [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2018
- Hybride Hélène: figures du nom et contamination des genres chez Ronsard
In: Hybrid Genres / L’Hybridité des genres. Ed. Jeanne Garane. Amsterdam: Brill, 2018. 106-122 [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2018
- Presentation
In: La Littérature et la vie. Ed. C. Ippolito. Paris: Classiques Garnier, 2018. 7-29. [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2018
- Gagner ou perdre dans L’Éducation sentimentale
In: Lectures de L’Éducation sentimentale. Ed. Steve Murphy. Rennes: Presses universitaires de Rennes, 2017. 209-221. [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2017
- Quignard essayiste lu par Quignard critique: les caractères des Petits traités
In: La Conversation des genres. Eds. P. Buffaria and P. Mougeolle. Paris: Classiques Garnier, 2017. 79-93 [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2017
- Résistance culturelle aux Comores: Soeuf Elbadawi et le blog de Muzdalifa House
In: Les Littératures francophones de l’archipel des Comores. Eds. L. Rasoamanana and alii. Paris: Classiques Garnier, 2017. 211-225. [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2017
- Bernardin’s L’Amazone: A Post-Enlightenment Brazilian Utopia
Date: 2016
- Arguments pro-européens d’hier et d’aujourd’hui dans La Paix en Europe par l’alliance anglo-française (1861)
Date: 2015
- Immerrance chez Régine Robin
Date: 2015
- Environnement, idéologie et politique internationale dans l’Afrique de l’Ouest d’aujourd’hui
Date: 2014
- De Beyrouth à New York : traduction, politique, marketing
Date: 2013
- Trois contes, Trois femmes puissantes : le puzzle et l’oiseau migrateur
Date: 2013
- Apories culturelles et mémoire de la diaspora : migration et écriture chez Régine Robin
Date: 2012
- Literary Translation: From Cultural Capital to Dialogism
Date: 2012
- L’Afrique fantôme : le journal de l’ethnographe entre théâtre rituel et littérature
Date: 2011
- Naissance d’une nation : La Revue Phénicienne au Liban en 1919
Date: 2011
- Un détournement interculturel : Bernardin de Saint-Pierre et l’image du paria vertueux
Date: 2011
- De Graffiti à Névralgies : le dit de la souffrance et la veille poétique
Date: 2009
- Naguib Mahfouz’s Alexandria
Date: 2003
- Le Syndrome Borel chez Baudelaire : comment peut-on être lycanthrope au second degré ?
Date: 1996
Other Publications
- The Case for the Humanities. Pedagogy, Polity, Interdisciplinarity, by Eric Touya de Marenne (Lanham, Boulder, New York and London: Rowman & Littlefield, 2016, xi + 145 pp.
In: Studi di Letteratura Francese XLII (2018) 304-305. [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2018
- Dictionnaire des naturalismes. Paris: Honoré Champion, coll. « Dictionnaires & Références », 2017, 2 vols, 1005 pp. Ed. Colette Becker and Pierre-Jean Dufief
In: Nineteenth-Century French Studies 47.1-2 (2018) [2 pages]. Ahttp://www.ncfs-journal.org/?q=node/1569. [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2017
- Multiple entries
In: Dictionnaire Gustave Flaubert. Ed. Éric Le Calvez. Paris, Classiques Garnier, « Dictionnaires et synthèses », 2017 [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2017
- Gustave Flaubert, Rêve d’Orient. Plans et scénarios de Salammbô. Ed. and introd. Atsuko Ogane. Genève: Droz, coll. « Textes Littéraires Français », 2016, i + 237 pp.
In: French Studies 72.1 (January 2018) 118-19 [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2016
- Michelle Hartman, Native Tongue, Stranger Talk: The Arabic and French Literary Landscapes of Lebanon (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 2014, xviii + 368 pp.
In: Review of Middle East Studies 50.1 (2016) 94-97 [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2014
- French literature, 1900–1945
Date: 2012
- “The Original Explosion That Created Worlds”: Essays on Werewere Liking’s Art and Writings. Ed. John Conteh-Morgan and Irène Assiba d’Almeida (Amsterdam & New York: Rodopi, 2010, 363 p.). Women in French Studies 20 (2012) 111–13.
Date: 2012
- French literature, 1900–1945
Date: 2011
- French literature, 1900–1945
Date: 2010
- French literature, 1900–1945
Date: 2009
- Les Amoureux de Schéhérazade. Variations modernes sur les Mille et Une Nuits, by Dominique Jullien (Genève: Droz, coll. “Histoire des Idées et Critique littéraire,” 2009). The Romanic Review 100.4 (November 2009 [appeared in fall 2010]) 565–67.
Date: 2009
- Seul dans l’Orient lointain. Les Voyages de Nerval et Du Camp, by Lise Schreier (Saint-Étienne: Publications de l’Université de Saint-Étienne, 2006). The Romanic Review 100.3 (May 2009 [appeared in spring 2010]) 393–95.
Date: 2009
- Aloysius Bertrand
Date: 2008
- Commercial Practices in France as Seen by Georgia Tech Students (with Anne T. Bidgood, Sarah S. Mc Elveen, and Emily K. Pechar [Advanced Business French students]). French Trade Commission Newsletter for the Southeast, May 2008 [online, 2 pages].
Date: 2008
- French literature, 1900–1945
Date: 2008
- Journal des Goncourt, by Edmond and Jules de Goncourt. Tome I: 1851-1857. Ed. Jean-Louis Cabanès (Paris: Honoré Champion, 2005). The Romanic Review 98.4 (November 2007) 528–30.
Date: 2007
- Robert Desnos, Surrealism, and the Marvelous in Everyday Life, by Katharine Conley (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2003). Women in French Studies 14 (2006) 138–39.
Date: 2006
- Des liseuses en péril. Les images de lectrices dans les textes de fiction de La Prétieuse de l’abbé de Pure à Madame Bovary de Flaubert (1656-1856), by Sandrine Aragon (Paris: Éditions Honoré Champion, 2003). Women in French Studies 12 (2004) 142–43.
Date: 2004
- Joffre Dumazedier
Date: 2004
- [124 entries]
In: Dictionnaire Gustave Flaubert. Ed. Éric Le Calvez. Paris, Classiques Garnier, « Dictionnaires et synthèses », 2017, 1259 pp. [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2001
- Contribution to the panel “Looking Backward, Looking Forward: MLA Members Speak,” PMLA Millenium Issue. PMLA 115.7 (December 2000): 2057.
Date: 2000
- Louis Bertrand
Date: 2000
- Vérité des choses, mensonge de l’Homme dans Madame Bovary de Flaubert: De la Nature au Narcisse, by Didier Philippot (Paris: Éditions Honoré Champion, 1997). Nineteenth-Century French Studies 27 (Spring-Summer 1998) 429–31.
Date: 1998
- Flaubert correspondant, by Martine Reid (Paris: Sedes, 1995). The Romanic Review 88.1 (January 1997) 197–98.
Date: 1997
- Paris à l’époque de Balzac et dans la “Comédie Humaine”. La ville et la société, by Jean Ygaunin (Paris: Nizet, 1992). The Romanic Review 87.3 (May 1996) 431–34.
Date: 1996